Nestled about 7500 feet above sea level, Machu Picchu is found in the Andean mountain range above the Urubamba valley. It is an ancient city lying on top of a mountain peak. There are a lot of unknown and interesting Machu Picchu facts. This city was probably created at the peak of the Inca Empire around 1450.

The real purpose is unknown, but there have been speculations that it might have been a prison, or a defense retreat, but the most commonly accepted belief is that it must have been the Inca Emperor’s estate. Below are some interesting facts about this lost city of the Incas.

1. Manchu Picchu is one of the new seven wonders of the world. This choice was made in the year 2007. It remained a hidden city but was made public in the year 1911 when Hiram Bingham, an explorer, arrived there. The natives were already using some of its stairs as a cultivation ground for their harvests.

2. Manchu Picchu means “Old Peak” or “Old Mountain” in the Quechua Indian language.

3. In 1983, the Machu Picchu ruins were named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

4. There are more than 150 buildings in Machu Picchu. These range from temples to chambers, rooms, terraces, sanctuaries and baths.

5. There are more than 100 separate flights of stairs within the Machu Picchu compound. Most of these staircases are individually carved from one stone slab.

6. Most of the building blocks used in the creation of Machu Picchu weigh 50 tons or more. However, the precision they are made with is so great that the joints fit in to each other so tightly even a sharp knife blade cannot be inserted in between. The joints are also mortar-less. This design of the Inca structures made them highly resistant to earthquake. That’s one reason why they still stand even today. How these large blocks of stones were taken up the hills remain a mystery.

7. The sacred Intihuatana stone shows the two equinoxes accurately. This indicates that Machu Picchu played a role of being an astronomical observatory. Two times every year, the sun is directly over the stone without creating any shadow.

8. Most Inca civilization cities were destroyed by the Spaniards in their conquest. However, they did not touch Machu Picchu because it is totally invisible from below, and so was not found. It is, thus, one of the world’s most well preserved Inca city, with great archaeological value.

9. You can get to Machu Picchu in two ways; either by train, or by hiking on foot via the Inca Trek. Hiking is the most interesting option, being so memorable. You get to experience, first hand, the culture of the native societies, the forests and jungle, as well as the mountains and valleys. The hiking takes three days to get you to Machu Picchu and is simply unforgettable.

10. Machu Picchu temperatures average 16 degrees Celsius, with an annual rainfall of between 1500mm and 3000mm. The temperature drops to 50 °F (10.2 °C) at 8,200 feet (2,500m) above sea level, with the average rainfall 2.67 inches a month. There is a dry season between May to September, and a wet season from October to April. These are some of the interesting Machu Picchu facts that you should know.

India is known for its rich culture, remarkable history and attractions. One of these attractions is the renowned Taj Mahal. Built in beauty and splendor, the Taj Mahal is known as the epitome of unending love; a love that knows no bounds. Get to know more about the majestic Taj Mahal as you read on and unveil the story behind this amazing structure.

Many people from across the globe visit this popular mausoleum to see and experience a true symbol of lifetime love and passion, but not all know the rich Taj Mahal history which made this famous landmark a one of a kind piece of historical structure.

The Origin of Taj Mahal

The history of this magnificent structure can be traced back to 1631 during the time of Shah Jahan, the emperor of the Mughal Empire’s period of greatest prosperity. The inspiration came after the death of Mumtaz Mahal, the third wife of Shah Jahan. Mumtaz Mahal’s death occurred upon giving birth to Gauhara Begum, the couple’s 14th child.

A year after her death, construction began. This is in memory of Mumtaz Mahal. The primary mausoleum along with the other buildings and garden surrounding it was completed in 1648. The Taj Mahal was completed in 1653. It took 22 years to build this remarkable mausoleum – 12 years to complete the mausoleum’s tomb and plinth and another 10 years to finish the enitre complex. 99 names of Allah were calligraphically written on Mumtaz Mahal’s tomb. The name Taj Mahal is translated as “Crown of the Palace” or “Crown Palace” in English.

During the construction, a large workforce was required in building the tomb. About 20,000 craftsmen and workers were needed to finish the whole structure. In fact, a number of elephants were also used to cart the materials needed in building this magnificent work of art.

Slaves, calligraphers, peasants, and workers worked hand in hand to finish the whole structure. About 28 types of semi-precious and precious stones were used to ornament the mausoleum. Indeed, the whole complex was built with sophistication and artistry.

Shah Jahan’s Sorrow

Shah Jahan’s heart was truly moved upon the death of his beloved wife. His expression of grief and sorrow is reflected on the white marble mausoleum. Not long after the mega structure’s completion, Shah Jahan was forcefully dethroned by his own son Aurangzeb. He was then put under house arrest near Agra Fort. Shah Jahan died and was buried right next to his wife in the mausoleum. Today, millions of visitors and tourists pay a visit to this wonderful mausoleum to witness how great their love was – even death did not set them apart.

Taj Mahal’s under Siege

In 1857 during the Indian rebellion, the Taj Mahal became a casualty. Some sections of the complex was destroyed as government officials and British soldiers chiseled out the lapis lazuli and other precious stones from its walls. Fragments of agate and carnelian from the flowers were also extracted.

The architecture of the great mausoleum was inspired by different design traditions such as Persian, Turkish and Indian. British architecture later came into the scene when the Taj Mahal was in dire need of reconstruction.

Durability

The Taj Mahal surely had tough times. It faced threat from German, Japanese and Pakistan air bombers during the time of wars in the 19th century. Nonetheless, it remains the crown jewel of Mughal architecture.

With the richness of Taj Mahal’s history, you will be enamored and inspired. Its existence has made a great mark not only in the history of India but also of the world. Also, the wonderful accomplishment in the field of architecture was recognized by UNESCO as they were officially made a World Heritage Site.

With its rich and amazing history, it is indeed true that the Taj Mahal has withstood the test of time. For the past decades, the Taj Mahal is still standing proud despite of everything it had gone through. Today, thousands and thousands of people visit this famous mausoleum to witness a great epitome of long-lasting love.

Rome is known as the “eternal city”, which is the capital and largest city of Italy. Rome is blessed with just the right weather, it has a Mediterranean climate, summers are hot, spring and autumn are mild to warm. Rain is mostly confined to the winter and summer months.

Mediterranean Weather

The summer lasts for 6 months from May to October; the height of summer is August during which the temperature exceeds 86°F (30°C). April and November are considered transitional months.

December, January and February are the coldest months with average temperatures around 56°F (13°C)and snowfalls can occur during these months. Spring and the fall are the best seasons to visit the Rome, spring lasts from late March to May and fall lasts from September to mid November.

The Roman “beautiful October days” are sunny and warm, autumn month of October has the finest weather. Summers are pretty hot [from June to August] and winters are too chilly [from December to February] to visit Rome.

As a UNESCO world heritage site of immense cultural significance, Chichen Itza is one of the Yucatan’s grandest archaeological sites. It is, perhaps, one of the most famous and accessible, of the Mayan sites. It is located 125 kilometers west of Cancun and Cozumel.

It is a rugged place with massive temples, soaring pyramids, awesome sports fields and startling carved columns. Here are some cool facts about this 1500 year old sacred city:

1. Chichen Itza was founded in 400 AD by the pre-Columbian Mayan civilization. It spans a history of 1500 years. It is located in north central section of the Yucatan Peninsula.

2. Chichen comes from two different words, Chi, which stands for “mouth” and Chen, which stands for “well”. So, Chichen means “At the mouth of the well”. Itza refers to the Itza tribe. So, Chichen Itza simply means “At the mouth of the well of Itza”.

3. Chichen Itza was governed by priests in the early days. It was the center for Mayan ceremonies.

4. To make their gods happy, the Mayans would throw people, as a sacrifice, from the top down. Those who survive were believed to have special favor from the gods.

5. In the early 1920s, the first official tourism business was started in Yucatan. This was by the grandnephew of a former Yucatan Governor Miguel Barbachano, Fernando Barbachano Peon. Fernando purchased the entire Chichen Itza site in 1944, and constructed a hotel there. This increased the viability of this site as a tourism site, allowing visitors to come to the ruins.

6. The Great Ball Court of Chichen Itza is one of the main contributing attributes to the fame of the site. It has stone rings that are 20 feet high. It also has no vault, and is open to the sky, with no discontinuity between the walls. There are temples supported on each of the southern, northern, and eastern sides. These are thought to have been used for rituals during the sacred games in its earlier days.

7. The most important and largest ceremonial structure at Chichen Itza is the Kukulkan Temple. It is the feathered Serpent god, called Quetzalcoatl, by the Aztecs and the Toltecs. Some early Spaniards referred to it as El Castillo, or simply “the castle”. It does not resemble a castle, and was used for astronomical observations and religious purposes.

8. The interior of Northern Yucatan has no aboveground rivers, and is arid. The only natural water source are sinkholes called cenotes. Some of the cenotes are small, with others being quite large. Sacred Cenote or “Cenote Sagrado” is the larger of the two in Chichen Itza, and is the most famous. This is where the Maya used to throw sacrificial objects and humans to worship their rain god Chaac.

9. One of the Mayan sports was a game that used a soccer-sized ball. This game had some very intricate rules, with a lot of competition and great excitement for the huge spectator crowds. The game was played in the huge Chichen Itza court.

This court is lined with carvings that show the rules and details of this game that was considered sacred. There is even a carving showing a captain being beheaded for loosing a game. These are some of the fascinating facts about Chichen Itza.

Dawning of a new day at the Taj Mahal
Photo by: Christian Haugen, Creative Commons

The Taj Mahal is a grand piece of craftsmanship built in 1631 and is still considered as one of the best attractions in the world. It is a symbol of great love; therefore many people visit it from all walks of life from all over the world because of its celebrated beauty.

1. It took 22 years and about 20,000 craftsmen and workers to build this remarkable mausoleum. With the architectural help of calligraphers, masons, sculptors, and craftsmen, the construction started in 1631 and was finished in 1653. A great workforce was required in order to build the tomb. In fact, about one thousand elephants were needed to haul the materials used in building this breathtaking monument.

2. This great example of architecture is divided into well-defined sections. The first section is the Taj Gateway; a red sandstone gateway decorated with calligraphic verses from the Koran. It was completed in 1648; it stands 30 meters and is decorated with tiny cupolas or chattris. The second section is the Charbagh known as the Taj Garden. This Persian-inspired garden has an area of 300 m x 300 m. The third is the Pietra Dura -The Tomb. Resting on a red sandstone platform, this famous tomb is made of marble. The fourth section is the Terrace area with decoration that includes the crypt and cenotaphs of the Taj.

3. In line with a Pietra Dura decoration, 35 types of precious stones were used to ornament this wonderful mausoleum. Onyx, coral, jade, lapis lazuli, jasper, garnet, agate, and turquoise are just a few of what make the Taj Mahal so breathtaking.

4. During the whole construction, a 15-kilometre tamped-earth ramp was built in order to transport heavy materials including white marble and other materials used.

5. The 99 names of Allah were written at the eastern and western parts of Mumtaz’s grave.

6. It took about 12 years to complete just the mausoleum’s tomb and plinth. Another 10 years to finish the entire complex.

7. The construction of the Taj Mahal cost 32million rupees.

8. When translated in English, the name “Taj Mahal” means “Crown of the Palace.” It can also be translated as “Crown Palace.”

9. The Taj Mahal is a remarkable architectural example of the Mughal period, which is the union of Persian, Indian, Turkish, and Islamic style of architecture.

10. The height of the dome is nearly 115 feet (35 meters) and its circumference is at 98 feet (30 meters).

11. One of the most fascinating Taj Mahal facts is the changing of its colors. People are fascinated because this remarkable attraction changes colors depending on the time of day. Some people believe that the changing of colors reflects the different mood of a woman.

The Taj Mahal is a symbol of everlasting love. It was built because of King Shah Jahan’s passionate love in memory of his beloved wife, Arjmand Banu also known as Mumtaz Mahal.

These Taj Mahal facts provide the deserved backdrop for this testament of love. With scenic views and accompanying history, there’s no doubt that people visit the Taj Mahal every now and then to experience and witness an extraordinary example of love.

Considered to be one of the greatest contributions of the Roman Empire to the world, the Colosseum is visited by millions of travelers all across the globe every year.

But if you plan to go to this famous landmark, you probably need to know the Colosseum location.

The Colosseum is in Rome, Italy. It is located in the central-western part of the Italian Peninsula with a latitude of 42 degrees (North) and longitude of 13 degrees (East). The Leonardo da Vinci Airport is quite a ways from the Colosseum at nearly 22 km away. However, the Colosseum is just a little over 5 km from the Vatican.

This favorite tourist destination has become part of the busy city. A trip to Rome will not be complete without paying a visit and experiencing an ancient yet world-class tourist destination.

Transportation

When you visit the Colosseum, you may take a taxi from the airport. The Colosseum is about 22 kilometers from the Leonardo da Vinci Fiumicino Airport.

There are different modes of transportation when moving around Rome. You can rent your own car, use the Public Transit bus service that run 24 hours a day, the metro service line, and taxi services.

There are hop on, hop off buses which stop at this famous landmark to accommodate visitors and tourists.

The Colosseum is known as one of the amazing mega-stuctures ever built. The impressive display of majesty and the magnificent mark it left in history makes it a one- of- a kind man-made infrastructure in the world. Do you want to know why?

Interesting facts about the Colosseum

1. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheatre from its original name Amphitheatrum Flavium. The name is derived from the combination of two royal families: Vespasian and Titus.

2. It is considered as one of the finest works of Rome and is known as a symbol of Roman pride in architecture and engineering.

3. This amazing Colosseum is the largest Amphitheatre built by the Roman Empire.

4. Its construction started in 72 AD during the reign of Emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under the emperor’s successor, Titus. Until now, it has been standing for 1,931 years.

5. It was used for Roman entertainment such as the battles between gladiators, mock sea battles, animal hunts, and ruthless executions. It was also used as a stage for reliving well-known battles and dramas of Classical mythology.

6. The Colosseum had a maximum capacity of 50,000 spectators during gladiator contests and other public spectacles. Some modern estimates suggest that it can accommodate up to 87,000 people.

7. In the 21st century, the Colosseum stands as a symbol of Imperial Rome. It is the most popular and highly visited tourist attraction in Rome. During Good Friday, this amazing structure serves as a starting point for the “Way of the Cross” procession where the Pope leads with a torch lighting ceremony.

8. The image of the Colosseum can be seen in Italy’s five-cent euro coin.

9. It covers an area of six acres with the building structure itself at 615 feet long (189m) and 510 feet (156m) wide.

10. The measurements of the outer wall, perimeter and central arena are as follows: its outer wall measures 48 meters (157 ft. / 165 Roman feet), it has a perimeter of 545 meters (1,788 ft. / 1,835 Roman feet), and a central arena which has an oval measurement of 87 m (287 ft.) long and 55 m (180 ft.) wide, surrounded by a wall which measures 5 m (15 ft.) high.

11. The outer wall is mainly composed of travertine, a limestone deposited by hot springs. It needed an estimated amount of 100,000 cubic meters / 131,000 cu yard of travertine.

12. Due to the changes in climate, migration of birds, blooming of flowers, and the growth of Rome caused the growth of 684 species of plants during its peak, but now, the latest count has dwindled down to 200.

13. The Amphitheatre has been featured in numerous films and popular culture such as the Roman Holiday (1953 film), Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954 film), 20 Million Miles to Earth (1957 film), Bruce Lee and Chuck Norris’s Way of the Dragon (1972 film) and Ridley Scott’s Gladiator (2000 film).

These amazing facts about the Colosseum give it a well deserved notoriety. Time has passed, but the Colosseum’s identifiable prominence, impressive majesty, and interesting history still remain. A trip to Rome will not be complete without paying a visit to this ancient yet amazing landmark.

Statue of Spartacus at the Louvre
Photo by: Denis Foyatier, Creative Commons

Spartacus was a leader of oppressed people under the old Roman Republic. He is known for starting a rebellion against the Roman Empire in the Third Servile War. There are a lot many things to learn about this known leader. There are some assumptions that have not been confirmed to this very day but one thing is for sure, Spartacus was able to share a vision with the slaves during the ancient times and he led the way to bring back this knowledge to everyone. Here are some facts about this brave leader.

His Origins

There are arguments when it comes to the origins of this man. Ancient historians believed that he was Thracian. Others thought of him as a Thracian by birth but was trained as a Roman soldier. A lot of authors have encased this man in countless origins that it became hard to keep track of them. Although, he is known to the world as a Thracian who later received training from the Roman army and was then sold to slavery.

Role In The Slave’s Revolt

After he received training from the Roman army, historians say that Spartacus was sold to a “ludus” or a training ground for gladiators. A ludus is a Latin word that meant school or game. In Roman times, there were a few schools that trained gladiators so that they could take part in the games at the Colosseum; these games took the lives of gladiators and slaves.

Spartacus was sold to the ludus of Lentulus Batiatus in 73 B.C. The school or ludus was located in Capua just 20 miles away from Mt. Vesuvius. During the same year, Spartacus planned a revolt against the school. He started planning the escape from the ludus with the help of other gladiators who wanted to earn their freedom. The plot was betrayed by other gladiators but they still pushed through. Using kitchen tools as an alternative to their usual weapons, the men fought their way out of the school and into the streets of Capua. As soon as they were able to gain access to the streets, they seized wagons that contained gladiator armors and weapons. The escaped gladiators were freed from the school but they encountered much more in the streets of Rome.

The Army

During their escape, they encountered a small army but they were able to defend themselves and survive. Along the way, they started recruiting slaves to be part of their own army. After they recruited enough men, they decided to build camp near Mt. Vesuvius. Spartacus, Crixus and Oenomaus were chosen by the slaves and gladiators to lead them. During this time, the Roman Army was busy due to the war being fought in Spain.

It seemed that the Romans did not really look into this rebellion as a cause of war. Gaius Claudius Glaber, the leader of the army dispatched to seize the slaves was surprised at the tactics of Spartacus and his army. It was told that Spartacus and his men used vines as ropes to lie waste the unfortified camp at the bottom of the volcano. This success brought more people in Spartacus’ army and at the end the army was up to 70,000.

Rome Threatened

The growing number of Spartacus’ army alarmed the Senate. It was during this time that they tasked two consular legions to stop this rebellion. Led by Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus and Lucius Gellius Publicola, they defeated the army of Crixus in Mount Garganus. Although, the victory was short lived because they were defeated by Spartacus’ army.

This defeat led the Roman Senate to task Marcus Licinius Crassus to end the rebellion. Crassus was the wealthiest man in Rome and he had been given eight legions to command. It was under Crassus that the Roman Empire started gaining victories against the army of slaves. Spartacus was then forced to camp near the Strait of Messina in Rhegium. It was also during this time that Crassus tasked his army to start a camp in the same area and attack the rebels and cut off their supplies.

The Fall

The army who fought in Spain was then tasked to aid Crassus in his pursuit to end the rebellion. It was said that Spartacus tried to bargain with Crassus and was unsuccessful. It was this moment that some of Spartacus’ army fled to the mountains in Petelia. The Roman army was able to catch a few rebels who were separated from the group during their escape and other slaves started forming independent groups to fight off the legion that came. Spartacus brought his full force to make a last stand against the oncoming legions. He used the strength of his full army to bring the battle to an end. It was this time that a majority of slaves were killed.

It was in 71 BCE that the final battle commenced. It was also the year that the slaves’ rebellion was brought down and the death of Spartacus. It was on the River Sele that this defeat took place. There have been accounts of armors and swords found in this battlefield after a few centuries. It was the end of the rebellion against the Roman Empire. Although, there are still questions about the fate of the leader of the slaves, Spartacus. During the fall of the rebellion, his body was not found but some historians believe that he died in the final stand with his men. The survivors of the war were then captured and crucified.

The story of Spartacus has brought a rich history of the ancient era to our very existence. There are a lot of adaptations when it comes to his story of bravery and leadership. There may be a lot of things that are yet to be discovered but his actions will always be remembered for years to come. Spartacus became the key to opening the eyes of slaves all over Rome and to the world. It was his quest for freedom that inspired modern writers when it comes to the meaning of oppression. It was his rebellion that brought truth to many political and literary writers all over the world.

There were many types of gladiators in ancient Rome; each specialized in different weapons and tactics. Gladiators only fought others from the same troupe, although sometimes particular gladiators were ordered to fight others from different troupes. They fought barefooted and under strict rules.

Gladiator types and their weapons

Bestiarii gladiators

Bestiarii or beast fighters were people who were closely associated with wild beasts and animals of the arena. The name was given to those who trained and looked after wild beasts, gladiators who specialized as wild animal fighters and also to criminals and prisoners of war who were executed as criminal by being thrown to the wild beast. The gladiators’ opponents were wild animals such as leopards, lions and tigers. The weapons used by these gladiators include: a spear, a knife and occasionally a whip. The gladiators also wore a visored helmet called the Galea, which was decorated with crests and basic leather legs and arm wraps. In addition, Bestiarii safely confronted wild animals in the arena from a spherical iron cage called Canistrum.

Andabatae Gladiators

Andabatae gladiators are also among the most famous types of gladiators. These gladiators were sight restricted gladiators who wore helmets without any opening for the eyes. They had to tight blindfold which excited the delight of the viewers. Andabatae fought with hapless criminals only, with a sword as the only weapon. They also fought with bare chests, although they wore body armor and a helmet with no eye holes. Sometimes these gladiators fought on horseback. Generally, they were hapless criminals who provided comic relief to the spectators.

Mirmillones

Mirmillones used a helmet that covered their head completely. They used the gladius, a Roman-style short sword, as a weapon. In addition to that, they were given an armguard, a large oblong shield, and a shin guard. The shields offered a large barrier between Mirmillones and their opponents to block the attacks. However, the shields were heavy and therefore made the fighters to be very slow and get tired in long fights.

Retiarii Gladiators

These fighters carried a trident, a net and a dagger. They also wore a loincloth, which was held in place by a wide belt, and an arm guard called manica, which extended to the shoulder and left side of the chest. Their fighting strategy was to entangle their challengers in the net and finish them with the trident. In addition to that, the retiarii stood on a raised platform with stairs while having a pile of stones to throw at his opponent. Generally, they fought secutores gladiators and sometimes Mirmillones.

Hoplomachi

Hoplomachi gladiators were well built and heavily armored gladiators. They fought with a gladius which was 27 inches long. This sword was designed to thrust and parry, rather than cut and slice. Hoplomachi also carried a lance called hasta, which was six feet long. In addition to that, they wore a Galea visored helmet with a heavy crest ridge. The right arm is protected by a manica of tied leather, while the lower left foot was protected by a metal greave. They fought with similarly armored gladiators, however; due to their heavy armors, their fighting speed was slow.

Equite or Eques gladiators

These types of gladiators entered the arena mounted on horses and started to fight on horseback. As a rule, if one fell off from his horse, the opponent had to fight on foot too. Occasionally, they would dismount after sometime, if neither of the fighters had won, to continue the combat on foot. They fought with a lance or a short, light throwing spear called verutum, and a gladius or a long straight sword with double edge called spatha. They used a medium sized, round, cavalry shield called parma equistris or a big oval body shield called Clipeus. They also wore Galea and manica. Eques were always the first to fight during a scheduled day of gladiatorial games.

Dimachaerus gladiators

Dimachaerus (dimachaeri in plural) were Roman gladiators who fought using two swords. They usually fought against heavily armored gladiators such as Mirmillones or Hoplomachi. The used two curved swords called sica or siccae, which had a blade of about 16 to 18 inches. Sometimes they also used the gladius as a weapon. They did not use a shield, although they wore a light visored helmet which fitted the head tightly. Their legs and arms were protected with leather wrappings. Dimachaerus had skills and ability to wield a sword with both hands.

Sagittarius gladiators

They were skilled archers equipped with short, powerful war bow of the Barbarians who lived in current Russia and Ukraine. When they fought, the arena was filled with bushes, rocks and trees to give cover to the fighters, forcing them to stalk each other through natural scenery. Generally, they participated in mock battles reflecting Roman victories against noxii gladiators. They did not use any shield, but they wore a scaled armor and pointed helmets.

Thraex gladiators

This is among the most popular types of gladiators. They carried a small square or rectangular shield which was made of wood. The shield was small in size and offered little protection below the groin. This is why the thraex wore greaves and ocreae on both legs, which reached the mid thigh level as a form of leg protectors. They also used a sica, which was intended to wound an opponent’s unarmored back. Moreover; they wore a protective belt above a loin cloth and a helmet with a side plume.

Venators

Until the mid first century AD, Venators were heavily armed with large shields, greaves and helmets. In the late first century AD, they are described to wear only a tunic and armed with a spear only.

Essedarius

Essedarius gladiators are a type of ancient roman gladiators who fought from a chariot. The chariot would have one man only or a fighter and a driver.

Provocatores

Provocatores which means challenger are a type of gladiators who challenged other Provocatores on a fight. They fought with the gladius, while using a rectangular, semi-cylindrical body shield. Their helmet did not have a crest, which made them to be distinguished from other types of gladiators. They also wore a small chest plate called Spongia, which was made of a single piece of metal covering the chest.

View of the Hypogeum at the center
Photo by: Jean-Pol GRANDMONT, Creative Commons

The Colosseum is an elliptical amphitheater, a masterpiece of ancient Roman engineering. Its ruins still stands today as a testament to the might of the Roman Empire. The construction of the Colosseum, initially called the Flavian Amphitheater, was started by the Emperor Vespasian in 72 AD. The history of the Colosseum can be divided into three eras – the ancient, medieval and modern.

Ancient Rome

Emperor Vespasian started construction in 72 AD; he died in 79 AD, and did not live to see its completion. They had only gone has high as the third floor, the top floor was constructed in 80 AD, during the reign of his son Titus.

The inauguration of the building was a grand spectacle. More than 9000 animals were killed during the inaugural games. Many Gladiators were injured or killed, either by the animals they fought or when the citizen spectators gave the ‘thumbs down’ signal. The execution of criminals also took place on the inaugural day. The blood lust of the citizens of Rome was unquenchable.

Emperor Domitian, the younger son of Vespasian, added the hypogeum, which was a series of underground tunnels used to cage the animals and also house the slaves. In order to increase the seating capacity, Domitian also added an extra gallery at the top. The Colosseum could seat fifty thousand spectators and even this large seating capacity was not enough.

Disasters

In 217 AD, the Colosseum experienced a disastrous fire, thought to have been caused by lightning, it was badly damaged. The upper levels of the amphitheater, made of wooden tiers, were gutted by the fire. The damaged portion took a long time to repair and was completed in 240 AD. Further repairs and renovations were also carried out in 250 AD and then again in 320 AD.

The Colosseum suffered damage from an earthquake that struck Rome in 443 AD and the damage was repaired under Emperor Theodosius II. Renovation was again undertaken in 484 AD and 508 AD. According to historical records available, gladiatorial events took place till 435 AD and animal contests were believed to have taken place till about 523 AD. In this year, Anicius Maximus held an extravagant venationes or animal hunt, to celebrate his Consulship with pomp and glory.

Medieval Era

The Colosseum underwent a lot of changes during this period. Gone were the extravagant Gladiator contests and animal shows. By the late 6th century a small church had been built in the amphitheater, but it did not turn the entire amphitheater into a Christian building. The vast space in the arena was converted into a cemetery. The hundreds of vaulted spaces in the arcades beneath the seats were turned into shops, workshops and houses and this continued till the 12th century. The next major change was around 1200 AD when the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it into a castle.

In 1349 AD, a major earthquake caused severe damage to the Colosseum. The south side, which had been built on relatively unstable alluvial soil, gave way and collapsed. The damaged portion of the Colosseum yielded a treasure trove of stones and other building materials, which was used for building palaces, churches, hospitals etc. in other parts of Rome.

In the mid 14th century a religious order moved into the Colosseum and was staying there till the late 19th century. The interior of the amphitheater was stripped of stone, bronze clamps and the exterior marble was burnt for lime. This scarring is in evidence to this today.

In the 16th and 17th century, the Church wanted the building to be put to productive use. Pope Sixtus wanted to turn it into a wool factory, as a means of alternate livelihood to the prostitutes of Rome. This idea did not materialize because of the Pope’s death. In 1671, Cardinal Altieri gave permission to use the amphitheater for bullfights, but the ensuing uproar prevented this from happening. The historical bloodthirsty appetites of the tastes of the citizens of Rome had changed.

In a development, which had clear Christian overtones, Pope Benedict XIV, made it official Church policy to consider the Colosseum as sacred since early Christians had been martyred in the Colosseum. To prevent the quarrying of stones from the Colosseum, he declared the place sanctified and installed the Stations of the Cross. Sufficient historical evidence is lacking to support this event as having happened.

However, later Popes did undertake measures for the stabilization of the building. The facade was reinforced in 1807 and 1827 by adding thick triangular wedges for strength. The interior was renovated in 1831, 1846. In the 1930’s under the tutelage of Benito Mussolini, the fascist dictator of Italy, the interior renovation was continued.

The Colosseum Today

The Colosseum still stands today, as a testament to Roman grandeur and it has a history steeped in the blood of humans and animals. It is one of Rome’s most visited and popular tourist attractions. The effects of wear and tear, pollution and vagaries of weather had caused the integrity of the Colosseum to deteriorate greatly. Between the years of 1993 and 2000, a major renovation and restoration program was carried out at a cost of $19 million.

Reminders
With its history drenched in blood, today it serves as the symbol of the international campaign against Capital punishment. Capital punishment has been abolished in Italy since 1948. The year 2000 saw several demonstrations in support for abolishing the death penalty. Roman authorities get the Colosseum lit up in golden light instead of the usual white light, whenever any prisoner anywhere in the world, under the death penalty, was either released or had his sentence commuted to imprisonment.

Due to its ruined interior, it can only stage concerts for a few hundred spectators using temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside the Colosseum building.

The Colosseum, a Roman edifice still stands after more than a thousand years, is a testament to the ingenuity of Roman engineers. From events drenched in blood, it has turned full circle, and is now the symbol of saving life of condemned death row prisoners. Only a third of the original Colosseum remains, but it stands proud and tall, as a testament to the Roman Empire.

In ancient Rome, Gladiators were armed combatants who would fight, often to the death, to entertain. Gladiator in latin means ‘swordsman’, derived from the word gladius (sword). Gladiators were introduced to Rome in the 3rd Century BC and reached its peak between the 1st century BC and 2nd century AD. However, the gladiator games lost their popularity towards the start of the 5th century.

Gladiator games (called ‘munera’) started as ‘duties’ paid to the dead ancestors but gradually lost their connection with the funeral of individuals. They became important public spectacles, which were staged by the politicians and the emperors. The popularity of gladiatorial games was enormous and famous gladiators became idols to the public.

Who were they?

Gladiators came from diverse backgrounds. Usually, Gladiators were men, but there could also be women. Most of the gladiators were prisoners of war or slaves and thrown in to the arena unwillingly, but their number included emperors. Free men, who were in dire need of money and lacked other means of support, voluntarily took a career as gladiator in hope of winning enough money and earn freedom for themselves.

As these games became more popular, many people later on joined to become gladiator for the fame and heroic status attached with the games. These men wanted to be popular and being a gladiator did offer a chance to become one. Anyone who chose to become a gladiator was considered to be beneath the law and not a respectable citizen. Though a few upper-class people did compete in the arena, but they did not live with other gladiators or like other gladiators. All gladiators were supposed to take an oath that they will endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten and to be killed by the sword.

Gladiators were trained in special training schools and the trained gladiators had a better chance of surviving the games and even thriving. Some gladiators had to fight no more than 2 to 3 times a year and top ones became popular heroes. Skilled gladiators stood a chance of winning good amount of money and even the wooden sword (rudis) that symbolized freedom. Freed gladiators either became trainers in the gladiatorial schools or bodyguards for wealthy individuals.

Types of Gladiators

There were various types of Gladiators categorized based on how they fought, their armor, and weapons. There were gladiators in chariots, horseback gladiators, gladiators who fought in pairs, and gladiators named after their origin. Gladiators were not only men but also few women took part in the games. Following were some of the different types of gladiators:

Thracian – These gladiators wore huge crested helmet with visor, high greaves on both legs, arm protectors and sported a short, curved sword.

Retiarius – These gladiators were net and trident fighters. They wore minimal amount of armor on the body and their head and neck used to be uncovered. Lack of armor made them more mobile and they used running as one of the tactics to fight against the opponents.

Secutor – They were generally paired with Retiarius and were often referred to as chasers. They had egg-shaped helmet with eye holes. For protection they had greaves on one leg, arm protector and legionary-style shield and sword.

Bestiarius – They were special type of gladiator trained to fight and kill various types of animals. They were the lowest ranked gladiators and did not become as popular as some other types of gladiators. These gladiators were mostly without armor and were equipped with whips or spears.

Most gladiator fights were conducted between different types of gladiators with different set of fighting equipment and armor.

Training

The manager or trainer of a gladiator group was called a ‘lanista’. He provided lengthy and arduous training in schools (called ‘ludi’), especially designed for this purpose and they were usually located near the great amphitheatres. At the peak of the gladiator games, all the gladiatorial schools in Rome were under direct control of the emperor. The biggest of these schools, the Ludus Magnus, was located in the vicinity of the Colosseum. This school even had a mini amphitheatre for practice and it’s remains can still be found.

A typical day at arena

The gladiator fights took place at arenas or amphitheatres. In the beginning, only privileged people were allowed in the arena, but over a period of time gladiator fights became a ticketed system. Gladiatorial games were kicked off with elaborate procession that included contestants and the sponsors of the games. The morning events used to begin with mock fights. These were followed by animal performances, where trained animals were featured to perform tricks. Also, exotic animals were pitted against each other for fights or they were hunted by Bestiarii.

During the lunch break, criminals were executed in the public arena. They were thrown in front of animals or were pitted against gladiators where their chance of survival was very low.

The afternoon session used to be the high point in the games that involved individual gladiatorial combat. In these matches, Gladiators with different combat styles and varied armor and weapons were pitted against each other. During the match, many rituals were followed in the arena, like holding up the index finger when the gladiator was wounded to concede defeat.

According to written evidence, ‘pollicem vertere’ (that includes turning the thumb) used to mean kill whereas ‘pollicem premere’ (that involves pressing the thumb) meant spare. People who turned or waved their thumbs meant that they want the gladiator to be killed; and people who wanted the gladiator to be spared would press their fists. In the end, it was sponsor’s decision whether to give life to the gladiator.

Since many centuries, gladiators have fascinated people, especially when they were fighting against cruel masters. That is the reason why character gladiator was introduced in many movies and was applauded by the audience.

Gladiator has been visualized in various art works of artists of Rome. Roman culture and art depicts the image of gladiator in their work. Paintings of gladiators were used to decorate the walls. ‘Pollice Verso’, Gerome’s painting beautifully portrays the image of rebellious gladiator. Wall paintings, lamps and ceramics made during the Roman Empire reflected the popularity of gladiatorial combat. Despite the fact that gladiators disappeared several centuries ago, their stories still continue to fascinate us.

Panoramic interior view of the Colosseum
Photo by: Paolo Costa Baldi, Creative Commons

The Colosseum in Rome is perhaps the most recognized ancient site in the world. It was built as an amphitheatre and is regarded as an architectural wonder even today. It was a huge structure and according to historians had a capacity to hold 80,000 people. The Colosseum was designed so that it would only take ten minutes to empty the amphitheatre without causing a stampede.

Overview

The impressive structure was divided into three tiers and each level consisted of enclosures reserved for different members of the hierarchy. The amphitheatre was large enough to easily hold a multitude and was beautifully planned.

Basic Architecture

The monument has colossal dimensions. It stood over 160 feet tall. From end to end the structure was spread over an area of more than six acres. It has a length of 620 feet and was close to 513 feet wide. The main arena where the performances took place measured 290 feet by 180 feet. The different tiers had been supported by stone and concrete and rose to a great height. It was a massive structure designed to perfection.

Getting people to enter and leave such a massive building without problems would actually have been difficult if not for the superb architecture. The architects designed the building with multiple arches and stairways within the structure. There are over 80 arches that led to several stairways which in turn led to the different levels of the monument. This architectural feat involving arches and stairways enabled emptying the building within a matter of minutes. The arches and stairs also made movement within the building comfortable.

A Labyrinth of Passages & Stairs

The area under the stands was like a maze made up of aisles and stairs. The stairways led from one level to the other. This web of stairs and passageways was effective in controlling the enormous crowds as they left the building. The arches and the stairways contributed to the uniqueness of the design of the Colosseum. Each passage and stairway was marked or numbered and so were the seats.

The ancient Romans had clearly thought of the smallest details while building the structure.
The arches were entry points to the building. Four of these were reserved exclusively for royalty and nobles while the rest were for the public.

Design of the Amphitheatre

During that era, most amphitheatres were circular in shape, but architects designed the Colosseum oval. This was yet another feather in the cap of the architects and showed their brilliance. The oval amphitheatre did not hinder the view of the spectators and enabled them to have a bird’s eye view of what was happening in the arena.

The Floor

When it was first designed, the Colosseum had no floor and all the events took place on bare ground. However, a wooden floor which was supported by wooden poles was later added to the amphitheatre. The floor had an innovative design and is another example of the outstanding architecture involved. Each wooden pole went into holes in the ground that held them up. Wooden boards were placed on the poles forming a makeshift floor. The wooden poles and boards were temporary fixtures and could be removed when required.

In fact, some historians feel that the arena could be flooded with water to hold mock sea fights. There is no concrete evidence to collaborate this. But looking at the structure as it stands today, the theory of holding water in the arena cannot be ruled out.

Years later a more permanent floor was built to replace the wooden floor. The new floor was similar in design to the previous floor. However, instead of wooden poles the new plan had pillars made from stones. The floor remained wooden and it has disintegrated over the centuries.

An Architectural Marvel

Walkways of the Colosseum
Photo by: permanently scatterbrained, Creative Commons

The new floor was more than just a floor, it was a technical wonder. The wooden floor was covered with sand so it gave an impression of being the ground. Beneath the floor was a maze of rooms and corridors where the performers would dress up and prepare for their act. The underground sections also served as dressing rooms. Animals were also kept in portions of the sections that were locked in cages. There was a high wall around the arena with metal barriers that prevented the animals from entering the enclosures where the audience sat when they were let loose in the arena.

The technical savvy Romans designed hand operated elevators which ran from the basement to the top where the arena is. These were used to transfer performers and animals up to the arena. The elevators were operated by slaves. There were a number of elevators, each of which was operated by over two hundred slaves. The idea of elevators was pretty classy for that period of time.

The floor of the arena had trap doors where the elevators opened. There were a total of thirty two trap doors along the periphery of the arena floor and the same number of elevators led from the basement to the afore mentioned trap doors.

The trap doors were concealed from the audience and whatever emerged from under the floor seemed to appear out of thin air, thereby creating an illusion. This amazing feature added to the Colosseum’s uniqueness and made it a major attraction for the citizens of the Roman Empire.

As it Stands Today

The Colosseum was definitely an architectural marvel in its heyday. What is left of the building still mesmerizes people. The building may be in ruins, but it does not fail to captivate visitors with its impressive size and design. Thousands visit the site each year to see this wonderful piece of architecture of the ancient world.

It is difficult to comprehend how the building was constructed without the use of modern day equipment and tools. The men who designed the building are forgotten in history but they must have been geniuses to have built it. It is amazing that a major part of the Colosseum still stands, battling the elements over centuries.

Temple of Warriors during the day
Photo by: jimg944, Creative Commons

The Temple shows how the early inhabitants were able to create an empire that leaves us in awe. The Temple of the Warriors is found within Chichen Itza. It is probably one of the most amazing structures at this archeological site. A lot of historians favor this structure because of what has been left for study. Here are a few interesting facts about this temple:

The Temple of the Warriors

• This temple is believed to be the only structure in Chichen Itza that is able to hold a huge gathering.

• The temple is dated between the 10th and 11th AD. It is made of four platforms flanked by 200 square and round columns on the south and west sides.

• Some of the square columns are painted in brilliants colors. It was also carved with Toltec warrior images that make it aesthetically attractive.

• The columns used are not only used for support but for other ingenious purposes. It provides the temple an area that allows easy movement. It also provides ample lighting for the area.

This amazing structure provides everyone a full view of how the Mayans lived during the early days. It also gives us an in-depth look on how creative and artistic the Mayans were. This beautiful site in the Yucatan is one of the most historical places in the world.

Taj Mahotsav is held annually at Shilpgram in Agra, India, close to where the famed Taj Mahal is located. The festival lasts for 10 days and is held each year from 18 February to 27 February. Entry to the Taj Mahotsav is free for foreigners while the locals have to pay a small entry fee. The festival is organized to revive and celebrate the grandeur of the great Mughal period. The ambience created at the Taj Mahotsav transports you into 18th and 19th century India before she gained independence.

Theme for Taj Mahotsav

The Taj Mahotsav is celebrated with a new theme each year. The theme is selected from the past but has relevance to today’s world. It is usually centered on conveying a universal message.

Traditional Crafts on Display

The Taj Mahotsav is a place where artisans from all over India converge and display their fine works. Only the best artisans are invited to showcase their work at this festival. Exquisite handicrafts for which India is famous for can be found in one place. It is a big event and the best textiles, jewelry, pottery, wood carvings and a lot more from different regions of India are up for sale at the festival.

Cultural Extravaganza

Taj Mahotsav has everything that one looks forward to about India. The festival commences with a grand procession in which camels and elephants decorated in regal finery participate. The procession replicates the victory parades from the past with folk dancers and musicians also taking part in traditional costumes.

It is a cultural extravaganza with a lot of fanfare. Tourists travel from afar to witness and participate at this event. The sights, sounds and colors of the procession are vibrant, enthralling and captivating.

The cultural show continues over the next ten days of the festival with performances scheduled throughout the day. You can also catch performances by international artistes who are specially invited to perform at the event.

The Taj Mahal is a very historic mausoleum in India inspired through the symbol of love which has been admired over the years.

Scenic Architecture

The Taj Mahal has been considered as the epitome of Mughal Architecture since it is the combination of Persian, Turkish and Indian inspired architecture which has its own flourished design that captivates millions of people around the world.

The tomb is the main attraction of the structure which is made up of white marble pieces on a square plinth. The calligraphic inscription of the casket makes it more interesting which identifies the name of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan.

The Interior

Flowers marble within the Taj Mahal
interior walls
Photo by: dms_303, Creative Commons

Apart from its external design, the interior design inside the Taj Mahal tells its own story to the world. The details are very intricately done which is quite fascinating that makes it more exquisite and wonderful. The façade that would lead to you to those sophisticated chambers is indescribable. The jail or octagonal the marble screen is made from eight panels are carved unbelievably without missing any single detail of it that borders the cenotaph respectively.

Other Details

The Ninety Nine Names of god found in the calligraphic inscription on the actual tomb is found on the side, this serves merely as decorations. Also, the pen box and writing tablet were funerary icons which highlight the whole thing of the mausoleum though Muslim tradition forbids highly detailed decoration of graves.

There is much to say about inside the Taj Mahal, but one of the greatest stories one could ever tell about this admirable structure, is the experience of seeing it real. Come and see Taj Mahal, exploring them may inspire you that love can do an immeasurable thing. What makes it the most wonderful architecture of all time, it is because it is made up of love.

Built by emperor Shah Jahan in 1631 in memory of his third wife who died during child birth, the Taj Mahal is a magnificent and well kept white marble mausoleum located in the town of Agra in India, and is considered a world heritage site.

The Taj Mahal is a stunning example of Mughal architecture that utilizes a style combining elements of Persian, Turkish and Indian architectures, and is recognized world wide as a crowning symbol of Muslim art in India.

The Garden

To compliment this architectural wonder, the Taj Mahal garden spans the entire distance from the gate to the front of the mausoleum and is a favorite of many visitors. Indeed, for some it’s the reason for their visit.

Nature & Symbols

The 300 by 300 meter Taj Mahal gardens is based on geometric arrangements found in nature and combines flowers, fruits, birds, leaves, symmetry, and subtlety portraying both symbolic and abstract elements of paradise and Islamic belief. In fact, the symbolism portrayed by the garden and its geometry can even be found in Islamic texts. The four rivers of paradise depicted within the garden are water, milk, honey and wine.

A magnificent raised marble lotus-tank contains a stunning reflecting pool. Within its mirror like waters can be seen the sparkling white image of the mausoleum in all its grace and beauty. One could spend an entire day watching the colors change in the reflecting pool as the sun rises and sets while losing oneself in the musical chatter of the parakeets and monkeys.

Landscape Details

The detail of the Taj Mahal gardens is incredible, and the overall symmetry and harmony are astounding. The well maintained garden is divided into four main parts with two marble canals forming the central boundaries. The symbolism of this arrangement is unmistakable as four is the holiest number in Islam.

Within each quarter of the garden are planted 16 colorful flower beds each containing 400 individual plants. The flower beds are further divided by raised stone pathways placed for their symbolic meaning.

Everything about the Taj Mahal gardens is spectacular. Even the two types of trees found within the garden are symbolic. The noble Cyprus trees in the garden signify death, while the various fruit bearing trees signify life, with each individual grouping of trees arranged in subtle symbolic patterns.

The garden is best viewed at sunrise and sunset. To avoid the lines however, try to arrive before sunrise.

A recent visitor summed up the experience of the Taj Mahal gardens wonderfully, “Absolute beauty, no words can explain it…one must be there and see it and feel it oneself.”

In July of 2011, the centenary of the discovery of Machu Picchu was celebrated. One hundred years ago, this “lost city of the Incas” was rediscovered, having been lost not just for decades but for centuries. The city comprises of many terraces, dwelling places, and other buildings. It had been constructed during the sixteenth century, this amazing find has been considered as one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

Incan Empire

It is impossible to feel the atmosphere or re-live the experience of this lost civilization without embarking on the Inca trail, these ruins being left unknown to anyone for centuries. Hidden eighty kilometers outside the city of Cusco in the South East of Peru, the city was constructed high up into the Machu Picchu mountain range by the Incan Empire.

A left over from this ancient civilization, the discovery of the ruins of this mountain side city was discovered by thirty five year old American explorer, Hiram Bingham. At the time, Bingham was an assisting professor at the University of Connecticut, and he had travelled to Peru as professor of Latin American history in search of the new capital of the Incas, Vilcabamba. This site was the capital of the Incas, after their retreat from the Spanish empire and Cusco, but in search of Vilcabamba, Bingham was not prepared for what he would later find.

The Lost City

The lost city was discovered on July 24, 1911, on a day that the mountain range of Machu Picchu was covered by mist, making the discovery even more surreal. Bingham was accompanied on the day by two locals, the crew from his expedition having stayed at camp at the base of the mountain range. The Americans of course did not know that by staying at base camp they would indeed miss out on one of the most astounding discoveries of the modern age.

On the day of the discovery, Bingham was accompanied by a local guide, Melchor Arteaga, a peasant from the valley. It is said that the guide told Bingham what was hidden in the thick mist up in the mountain, speaking to him in his mother tongue, Quechua. The language of the Incas, Quechua is still widely spoken today throughout rural Peru.

The only other person to accompany Bingham on his trek up the mountain on that day that went down as one of the most important in modern history was Sergeant Carrasco, an assigned Peruvian officer. Machu Picchu means “old peak” in Peruvian dialect and Bingham paid his guide a silver dollar to take him to the city spoken of by the peasant.

Discovery

Nothing however could have prepared Bingham for the site that would come before his eyes on that misty day in the most famous Peruvian valley. It is estimated that Machu Picchu was built circa 1450 at the time when the Incan empire was flourishing, being abandoned following the Spanish Conquest over a hundred years later, a great number of the population already having died from an outbreak of small pox. To this day, the site high up in the Peruvian mountains is visited both on foot as well as by train by visitors from all over the world who follow the world famous Bingham trail.

Taj Mahal, is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, it is located along the banks of the Yamuna River in the heart of the city of Agra. Agra is in Uttar Pradesh state in Northern India and was the capital of the Mughal Empire. The strategic location of the Taj Mahal adds to its enchantment. The magnificent view of the glorious marble building is enhanced by different colors during the day and night, there are times that reflections from the water of Yamuna river bounce off the structure. Because of the location of Taj Mahal, the unique beauty of this spectacular marvel is enhanced during sunset and sunrise.

Scenic

You can see the scenic view from the backside of the structure. The Taj Mahal looks like a mirage from the Agra Red Fort. Shah Jahan used to gaze at this beauty during the last years of his life, when he was kept in prison by his son Aurangzeb.

Getting There

The distance between Agra and Delhi, capital of India is 204 km and approximately 4 hours’ drive from Delhi. The roads connecting these two cities are adequate. Flights from Delhi to Agra are available. Even the railroad system from Agra to Delhi is good. Taj Mahal can be visited any time during the year but the preferred time is in winter (September to March). You can visit the Taj Mahal during the Taj Mahotsava in February. During that time, folk artists from all over India come to perform. It is closed only on Friday.

The Taj Mahal was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaj Mahal. Apart from being a mausoleum, the Taj Mahal consists of many iconic structures such as a mosque, beautiful minarets, and the Taj Mahal gardens. The gardens in the Taj Mahal are divided by waterways. It is a major tourist destination in India. The Taj Mahal is one of the most spectacular creations that symbolize eternal love.

The stunning Taj Mahal in Agra, India, is among the most stunning architectural achievements in history. Although its primary function is that of a mausoleum, the structure is actually a complex with a variety of functions.

The Tomb

The heart of this palace-like structure is the Taj Mahal Tomb, which contains two exquisite cenotaphs representing the occupants of the tomb, Shah Jahan and his wife Mumtaz Mahal. A cenotaph is tomb which is empty and meant to represent the people who have been interred. The actual bodies of Shah Jahan and his wife are buried beneath their cenotaphs in a lower chamber. Both cenotaphs are elegantly carved and inlaid with semi-precious stones.

Shah Jahan was the emperor of the Mughal Empire. He began building the Taj Mahal in 1632 upon the death of his much beloved wife Mumtaz, who died giving birth to his 14th child. It took nearly 20 years and thousands of workers to complete the Taj Mahal and the magnificent tomb – all of it in memory of Mumtaz Mahal.

The Taj Mahal tomb itself is basically a cube-shaped structure measuring about 180 feet per side. It has chamfered corners and it topped by a large dome and “moon-cusp” finial. The whole structure sits atop a square plinth and has an arch-shaped doorway, called an iwan.

The Dome

The onion-shaped marble dome surmounting the structure is a marvel in itself. It’s about 115 feet high, which is the same as the length of its base. This is perched atop a cylindrical column about 23 feet high. At the top of the dome is a lotus design. Smaller domes positioned at the corners of this primary dome design create a pleasing symmetrical effect.

At the top of the dome is a finial spire thrusting an upturned crescent moon toward the sky. The moon cusp is a common Muslim motif. When first built, the finial was covered in gold, but is plated with bronze today.

You might say that the Taj Mahal Tomb is a work of architectural brilliance within a work of architectural brilliance.

Mumtaz Mahal was born Arjumand Banu Begum, she became the wife of the 5th Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. She was born in 1593 to Asaf Khan in Agra into a family of Persian nobility. She was betrothed in 1607 the age of 14 and married in 1612 to Shah Jahan, who conferred upon her the title Mumtaz Mahal.

Inspiration

The translation of her name means “the beloved ornament of the palace” and she was the inspiration behind the construction of the Taj Mahal. She was a Persian who was a staunch Muslim and was known for exquisite beauty and grace throughout the kingdom. Poets would praise her beauty. It is said that her beauty is unrivaled.

The Favorite

Shah Jahan had 3 wives the other two being Akbarabadi Mahal and Khandahari Mahal, but Mumtaz Mahal was the emperor’s most loved and favored. Empress Mumtaz Mahal would accompany her husband everywhere from his hunting expeditions to his military campaigns. She was so trusted by her husband that he even gave her his imperial seal, the Muhr Uzah. She was portrayed as the perfect wife with no political aspirations contrary to her aunt Empress Nur Jehan. Apart from advising and supporting her husband, she also loved watching elephants and combat fights that were conducted for the court. She also devoted some time to a riverside garden she had in Agra.

Promise

In their 19 years of marriage, they had 14 children. Seven of the children died at birth or at a very tender age. In 17th June 1631, while accompanying her husband to one of his war expeditions, Mumtaz Mahal died delivering their 14th child. On her death bed she asked for 4 promises from the emperor. The 1st promise was that Shah Jahan should erect a monument dedicated to their love. The 2nd promise was that he would marry again. The 3rd promise was he would be kind to their children. The 4th and final promise was that her husband would visit the tomb on her death anniversary.

After she died she was temporarily buried at the Zainabadi garden in Burhanpur that was originally constructed by Shan Jahan’s uncle Daniyal on the bank of the Tapti River. Since Burhanpur was not the intended resting place for Mumtaz Mahal, her body was exhumed in December 1631 and transported by her son Shah Shuja back to Agra. There, the body was interred in a small building on the banks of Yamuna River as Shah Jahan remained behind to conclude his military campaign.

Her Legacy

Her personal fortune was valued at 10,000,000 rupees and was divided by her husband between Jahanara Begum (imperial princess) who got half of it, and the remaining half to her surviving children. To honor his promises to Mumtaz Mahal, emperor Shan Jahan commenced the construction of the beautiful Taj Mahal in 1631.

It took Shah Jahan 22 years and most of his royal treasury to build a monument that was befitting to the memory of Mumtaz Mahal. To date, to the name of Empress Mumtaz Mahal stands for the most beautiful building in the world called the Taj Mahal. This is a monument of purity, love and unrivaled beauty and the final resting place for the emperor and empress.

Emperor Shah Jahan was the emperor of the Mughal empire in the Indian Subcontinent from 1628-1658. The name Shah Jahan is derived from Persian and it means Emperor of the world. He was born on 5th January 1592 in Lahore India and he died in 22nd January 1666 in Agra, India. He was the third son of Emperor Jahangir. His full name was Khurran Shihab-ud-din-Muhammad.

Royal Lineage

As a young price, he commanded his father’s army leading to many campaigns, and it was not until 1623 that he rose in rebellion. When his father died in 1627, he went to Agra to claim the throne after killing all potential rivals the following year, he was crowned and he assumed the throne on 24th January 1628.

Shah Jahan was the 5th Mogul emperor of India. He was an able ruler and a competent administrator who aimed at expanding the Mughal Empire. He was a staunch Muslim who was intolerant to Hindus. He did not support other religions. He employed many non-Muslims at his court but nonetheless showed considerable intolerance to Hinduism and Christianity. During his reign, the empire reached its zenith in luxury and prosperity.

Marriage

He married Mumtaz Mahal in 1607, who was 14 at the time. Mumtaz Mahal was a name given by her husband after finding her appearance and character outstanding among all the women of the time. Her original name was Arjumandu Banu Bergum. She was a granddaughter of a Persian noble. Despite her pregnancies, Mumtaz Mahal traveled with her husbands entourage throughout his earlier military campaigns and the subsequent rebellions against his father.

Love for Art & Architecture

Shah Jahan was a student of architecture and art, who took care of even the least detail in any construction that he ordered and lived a lavish life. The perfect and most famous example of his is the Taj Mahal. This is a white marble mausoleum that was built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of this 3rd wife Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz Mahal died at the age of 39 while giving birth to their 14th child.

The Taj Mahal is the most beautiful tomb in the world where every least detail had been carefully thought out and executed with precision. The tall doorways have text inscribed on them from the Koran. Precious stones such as Onyx, Jasper, Cornelian, Carbuncle, and Malachite among others are studded in the mosaic.

Masterpieces

Two other masterpieces built by Shah Jahan are the Jama mosque of Delhi, and the Pearl mosque of Agra. He also built a new capital near the city of Old Delhi called Shahjahanabad with its outstanding Red Fort.

This emperor also built the Peacock throne which was made out of gold and precious stones. The legs of the peacock were made out of solid gold and twelve emerald pillars supported by an emerald canopy. Each pillar had been intricately carved with 2 peacocks that were studded with diamonds and rubies, and from between the peacocks there was a tree emerging.

This tree was covered in pearls, rubies and diamonds. In 1658, Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb and locked away in a port that he himself had constructed known as the Octagonal Tower. Due to his age and weakness, he was unable to put up a fight and when he died, his eyes were fixed on the Taj Mahal. Shan Jahan was buried in the glorious tomb next to his wife.

Augmenting the grandeur of the Taj Mahal is a mosque located on the western side of it. The mosque is made of red sandstone and it offers two functions. First, according to the Islamic law, it was mandatory for each mausoleum to have a mosque in close proximity. Second, the mosque and the guest house together offer a wonderful symmetrical balance to the Taj Mahal’s architectural design.

Exterior

Used as a place of worship, the mosque faces the holy city of Mecca and was built by Isa Mohammad. The exterior enjoys one of the mosque’s overriding features, doorway well-known as the Iwan. On both sides of it are two small arches. Three domes and four small domed booths with marble coating complete the impressive visuals of the mosque.

Interior

Arches inside the Taj Mahal Mosque
Photo by: Mike Bostock, Creative Commons

The mosque interior has a sophisticatedly designed floor that is constructed with material that resembles velvet red shade. The floor is designed in the shape of a prayer mat, specifically 569 mats in total. The interior walls of the mosque are adorned with striking calligraphy citing the name Allah and numerous citations from the Quran.

The core aspect of the mosque that distinguishes it from the guest house is the existence of Mihrab and Minrab. The Minrab is an enclosure that shows the direction of Mecca and the direction which the Muslims face during prayers. Mihrab is place the where the sheikh delivers a sermon, and is always situated on the right-hand side of the Mihrab.

Furthermore, there is a small stone enclosure situated along the western boundary wall, measuring 19ft by 6.5 ft. This enclosure marks the provisional grave where the remnants of Mumtaz Mahal were deposited for some time when they were first brought to Agra, until they were finally placed inside the stunning mausoleum built in her memory. The pool in front of the mosque is used as a washing area before the prayer.

Main Gateway and entrance to the Taj Mahal
Photo by: inkiboo, Creative Commons

Darwaza-i-Rauza (gate of the mausoleum) – Taj Mahal Main gateway was constructed from the year 1632-1638. The gate is asserted to be designed by the architect named, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri – based on the writings of his son Lutfullah Munhadis.

Structure

The 93 foot high and 150 foot wide, double-storey building is constructed from red sand stone. The vertically symmetrical gate way is one of the five main elements of the historical monument Taj Mahal and was the main entrance during its construction. The size and the function of the gateway have gained it more importance than the building. The doorway is of ogival arch shape that reaches the mid-height of the gateway structure.

At the corners of the gate are octagonal shaped towers, surrounded by an open-domed pavilion. There are eleven umbrella shaped marble cupolas over the central portion of the gateway. A big decorated arched chamber lies in the archway of the main gate. It has rooms with twists, branches and side branches to hallways, most probably built to confuse people entering them. These rooms have not been used from about three centuries.

Beauty

Its beauty is enhanced by the touch of Hindu motifs on it. These motifs were made from stones of semi-precious nature. A red trident on a white teardrop makes the gateway look more beautiful. The sides of the gateway are decorated with inter-weaved red flowers of lotus, vines with leaves.

You would enjoy in true sense, an optical illusion where all the letters of the Quran verses have been done to such a size using Arabic calligraphy, making them look the same size – all over the arch. This feat was possibly achieved by increasing the size of the letters gradually, moving away from the eyes thus making them look the same size.

If you want to carve a life time of memories in your heart visit the Taj Mahal.

The nineteenth century was a time of great change in an ever modernizing world. The SS Great Eastern is one of the seven wonders of the Industrial age. The ship was constructed at the height of the Industrial revolution and was made entirely of iron, and was considered the most luxurious vessel of the day. The ship, however seemed to be doomed since the day of its launch, continually enjoying scandal, misfortune and accidents.

Brunel was instructed to manufacture the vessel. The construction was surrounded by financial scandal, Brunel’s bad health, and his untimely death in1859, which was just months after the ship was built. The ship that was commissioned in the UK was designed for long haul voyages to America, the vessel being able to make this incredibly long journey without having to refuel.

Construction

The ship was to be six times larger than any other afloat at the time, and construction began in 1854. The vessel, after much argument surrounding the cost, was ready for launch in 1858, and although Brunel wished to keep the affair a quiet one, three thousand tickets had been sold by Eastern Company’s director. The launch was indeed a huge failure as the rams were indeed not strong enough to launch the weight of the vessel.

Several consecutive attempts led to the launch finally taking place on the 31st of January in 1858, new super strength conditioned hydraulic rams been used. A date was given for the maiden voyage to Weymouth, but this was put back, this being just the start of a long chain of disasters that surrounded the vessel.

First Voyage

The first attempted voyage outside of the United Kingdom, with America as the destination ended in five deaths and several more casualties as the ship exploded just past Hastings due to a faulty exhaust. This gave very little confidence to the public and the first real voyage to America took place on the 17th of June 1860. They only had thirty five paying passengers on board, the rest were non paying passengers, journalists, and well over four hundred crew members.

Once again it appeared that the ship was jinxed as the boat was initially to set sail on the sixteenth, but was unable to as the crew were deemed too drunk to sail. The ship did however complete its maiden voyage, albeit in slow time and taking a non preferred route. Consecutive voyages to America were also unsuccessful for the doomed vessel, and on return to England the ship was commissioned by the British Government.

To Quebec

The first successful voyage of SS Great Eastern was when it was chartered by the British Government to travel to Quebec. More than two thousand troops alongside some forty paying passengers boarded the vessel that made the voyage in good time, arriving in just over eight days.

The ship remained in Quebec for one month before returning to Britain, this time with over three hundred and fifty paying passengers on board. Bad luck however returned when only one hundred booked for the second sailing from Britain and the boat taking the passengers to the Easter ran aground.

The ship arrived in America at the height of the civil war and little or no interest was shown on the ship. Upon returning, the ship embarked on what would be yet another disastrous journey to be added to the catalog of events when the shipped rolled heavily under command of Captain James Walker. After so many ill fated voyages, no offers were made at auction on a desperate bid to sell the vessel in 1864, and the SS Great Eastern was dismantled.

7 Wonders of the Industrial World

By the nineteenth century and during the time of the Industrial revolution, London was already a vast and sprawling metropolis, but one that was suffering from outbreaks of fatal diseases such as Typhoid and Cholera. The sewerage system for such a huge city was indeed nonexistent, human waste rife with bacteria floating down the river Thames.

Parliament

Parliament calls for action to upgrade the London sewerage system

There was an urgency to solve this problem, and parliament ruled that a new system was necessary. The job was given to chief engineer Joseph Bazalgette. What would follow is now commonly known as one of the seven wonders of the industrial world, more than one hundred miles of sewers that would divert the waste of the over populated city downstream from the city center.

Human Waste

The human waste that had been openly polluting the residents of the City was diverted into the Thames estuary by incorporating six main interceptor sewers. The creation of these new sewers allowed for new roads, public gardens, and even the circle line of the famous London Underground.

Three of the said sewers were located to the north of the river, the most southerly one actually being constructed into the Thames embankment. It took just six years to construct the hundred miles of intercepting sewers, which were connected to literally thousands of miles of smaller and more localized sewers.

These sewers were on the whole designed to flow in an easterly direction, but in certain places pumping stations were constructed that would raise the water level. Of course, as time passed, the population of London increased, and more improvements were made to ensure that pollution on the Thames Estuary and the North Sea were kept to a minimum.

During Rainfall

The famous system was incorporated in the nineteenth century into a city that was expanding at an alarming rate and could cope with rainfall of up to around six millimeters. What this essentially meant was that with an ever expanding population, the sewers were becoming increasingly full, and the nineteenth century London Sewerage system would quickly overflow.

In times of heavy rainfall, the levels in the sewers, a mix of rain water and raw human waste would rise and the streets of London as well as the River Thames would quickly become awash with a repulsive and stomach churning site of raw sewerage. The result of this was once again a huge health risk to the city population, and something that would be rectified, but not fully until well into the twentieth century.

Improvements

Storm water pumping stations were added to the already present sewerage system, solving the immediate problem that was occurring when the city suffered from high rainfall. Talks are however still in motion to add transfer tunnels under the river bed of the River Thames, which will support an ever fast growing city population, the project having a completion date for the year 2020.

7 Wonders of the Industrial World